As a regular reader of the Indian Express and as a critic of the rampant open defecation in India the news item published in the New Indian Express Coimbatore edition on the 22nd January 2011 did not surprise me. However I appreciate the reporter for bringing this menace to the limelight. Open defecation is a shame on the Indian public. All that one has to do is to take an early morning drive along any less-frequently used roads and you would find the stinking brown lines on both sides of the road. Talking of a solution to this problem I have always been of the strong opinion that it is NOT the Government that has to find a lasting solution to this menace. It has to come from the people themselves. This menace WILL end only if the open defecators switch on to their OWN toilets. Public toilets are not the solution for a problem where over 60% of the population poops in the open.
In this particular case IOC should take up, as their CSR project, education about sanitation in the area closer to their outlet and see that they all construct their own toilets.
THE NEWS ITEM:
Defecating in the open under IOC’s ‘watchful eye’
Yogesh Kabirdoss
Express News Service
First Published : 22 Jan 2011 01:27:26 AM IST
Last Updated : 22 Jan 2011 12:11:46 PM IST
COIMBATORE: Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras installed atop the Indian Oil Corporation terminal in Athappagoundan Pudur village on the outskirts of Coimbatore have inadvertently put the Dalit women folk in an embarrassing catch 22 situation.
The village falling under the Irugur Town Panchayat and situated close to the Palakkad Bypass National Highway, does not have public toilets forcing inhabitants to defecate in an open ground near the IOC terminal.
However, for over a year now the women folk are finding themselves in a delicate situation after they realised that their movements could be vividly captured in the high resolution revolving cameras.
While the IOC had installed the CCTVs as a security enhancing measure to prevent acts of terror or sabotage, ever since the women learnt about the existence of the candid cameras they have been overcome with a sense of shame and fear that someone could be watching them during their morning routine.
“We were not aware about the presence of the CCTVs in the vicinity until one of the employees of the IOC bragged about the security feature.”
“The moment we learnt about it, it sent jitters. We remain under fear that an invisible eye could be preying on us and are extremely uncomfortable about it. But we don’t have toilets in our village and there is no other place where we can answer nature’s call,” laments D Chinnal.
Citing the CCTVs, the locals led by Senthil Raj, a CPM functionary, have held repeated demonstrations and sent numerous petitions to various authorities including the Chief Minister’s Cell urging them to construct a public toilet.
But all those efforts have been in vain, says Raj.
Courtesy: The New Indian Express Coimbatore.
Sunday, January 23, 2011
Tuesday, June 15, 2010
Open Defecation in India- Solution Through Indian Squatting or Western Sitting Type Toilets?
07-06/10
Having got used to the Indian Squatting Type toilets all my life, I had a tough time switching over to the Western Toilet for some time after an accident. The most irritating part was placing my thighs on the seat and then came the fear of splashing water. Indian houses traditionally had only the squatting type toilets. These days houses are built with both these facilities and in some cases only Western toilets are built. This blog post is about the defects of the Western Sitting type toilets.
Though we had a Western toilet in our house we had seldom used it. In 2008, I met with an accident and had a nasty ligament tear on my right leg and was confined to bed rest for a couple of months. There was no other go other than using the Western facility at home. Since then I have been using it with the hope that I would soon be able to squat with my right leg flexing completely and start using the Indian toilet again. It was in 2008 that I realised that the Western type resulted in more stress and strain in defecating compared to the Indian type. I wanted to ascertain this fact and googled.
With my newfound interest in sanitation and finding a solution to India’s Open Defecation problem, this research, I thought, was timely. When we are planning a massive campaign to dissuade people from the archaic practice of open defecation, it is imperative to look at the best position to defecate and the ergonomics of the postures for defecation before deciding on the type of toilets.
Humans defecate in various positions. The main defecation postures are:
*Squatting Posture: Traditionally followed in most Asian and Indian toilets. In this position the angle between the body and the thighs is between 22 and 23 degrees.
“The aim of the study was to compare the straining forces applied when sitting or squatting during defecation. Twenty-eight apparently healthy volunteers (ages 17–66 years) with normal bowel function were asked to use a digital timer to record the net time needed for sensation of satisfactory emptying while defecating in three alternative positions: sitting on a standard-sized toilet seat (41–42 cm high), sitting on a lower toilet seat (31–32 cm high), and squatting. They were also asked to note their subjective impression of the intensity of the defecation effort. Six consecutive bowel movements were recorded in each position. Both the time needed for sensation of satisfactory bowel emptying and the degree of subjectively assessed straining in the squatting position were reduced sharply in all volunteers compared with both sitting positions. In conclusion, the present study confirmed that sensation of satisfactory bowel emptying in sitting defecation posture necessitates excessive expulsive effort compared to the squatting posture.” -Dov Sikirov-Comparison of Straining during Defecation in Three Positions: Results and Implications for Human Health- Digestive Diseases and Sciences- Vol: 48- No: 7- July 2003.
The best material on matters pertaining to ergonomics of squatting posture for defecation, the physiological benefits of squatting and the defects of the Western Sitting type toilets is “Health Benefits of the Natural Squatting Position” http://www.naturesplatform.com/health_benefits.html . It is a very good reading material and is a must for people interested in the subject of sanitation. It has completely demystified the notions about all the three type of defecation postures.
2) Protects the nerves that control the prostate, bladder and uterus from becoming stretched and damaged.
3) Securely seals the ileocecal valve, between the colon and the small intestine. In the conventional sitting position, this valve is unsupported and often leaks during evacuation, contaminating the small intestine.
4) Relaxes the puborectalis muscle which normally chokes the rectum in order to maintain continence.
5) Uses the thighs to support the colon and prevent straining. Chronic straining on the toilet can cause hernias, diverticulosis, and pelvic organ prolapse.
6) A highly effective, non-invasive treatment for hemorrhoids, as shown by published clinical research.
7) For pregnant women, squatting avoids pressure on the uterus when using the toilet. Daily squatting helps prepare one for a more natural delivery.” (Courtesy: Health Benefits of the Natural Squatting Position)
For me the Western side of the globe has always been a bundle of contradictions. When we use an internationally accepted system of measurement in kilograms and litres most of them still use archaic systems like pounds and gallons. If we use the left side of the road they use the right side. While we use our hands to eat our food they use a whole lot of things spoon, fork, knives etc. And finally when it comes to defecation they sit and we squat.
Having got used to the Indian Squatting Type toilets all my life, I had a tough time switching over to the Western Toilet for some time after an accident. The most irritating part was placing my thighs on the seat and then came the fear of splashing water. Indian houses traditionally had only the squatting type toilets. These days houses are built with both these facilities and in some cases only Western toilets are built. This blog post is about the defects of the Western Sitting type toilets.
Though we had a Western toilet in our house we had seldom used it. In 2008, I met with an accident and had a nasty ligament tear on my right leg and was confined to bed rest for a couple of months. There was no other go other than using the Western facility at home. Since then I have been using it with the hope that I would soon be able to squat with my right leg flexing completely and start using the Indian toilet again. It was in 2008 that I realised that the Western type resulted in more stress and strain in defecating compared to the Indian type. I wanted to ascertain this fact and googled.
With my newfound interest in sanitation and finding a solution to India’s Open Defecation problem, this research, I thought, was timely. When we are planning a massive campaign to dissuade people from the archaic practice of open defecation, it is imperative to look at the best position to defecate and the ergonomics of the postures for defecation before deciding on the type of toilets.
Humans defecate in various positions. The main defecation postures are:
*Squatting Posture: Traditionally followed in most Asian and Indian toilets. In this position the angle between the body and the thighs is between 22 and 23 degrees.
*Sitting Posture: Modern Western toilets provide a facility to sit on the toilet. In this position the angle between the body and the thighs is 90 degrees.
*Sitting Posture on a lower seat: A posture in between the sitting and the squatting postures. In this position the angle between the body and the thighs is 60 degrees.
*Sitting Posture on a lower seat: A posture in between the sitting and the squatting postures. In this position the angle between the body and the thighs is 60 degrees.
Apart from this angle formed between the body and the thighs while seated, the ano-rectal angle, the angle formed at the junction of the rectum and the anus is also an important factor in the ergonomics of the posture. “The anorectal angle (ARA), the angle formed by the junction of the rectum with the anus, is an important consideration in defecation posture studies. ARA is "one of the most important contributions to anal continence"; its normal value at rest is 90 degrees.” (ALTOMARE Donato F.; RINALDI Marcella; VEGLIA Antonella; GUGLIELMI Altomarino; SALLUSTIO Pier Luca; TRIPOLI Gaetano - in International journal of Colorectal Disease, 2001, vol. 16, number 1, pp. 51-54 .)
Lots of literature is available in the net which go to say that the Western Squatting Type Toilet is an ‘ergonomic nightmare’. The Western Toilet creates a strain on the user compared to the Squatting Type toilets. A study on the comparison of the straining in the three positions shows that the Squatting Type posture is the best for defecation: -
“The aim of the study was to compare the straining forces applied when sitting or squatting during defecation. Twenty-eight apparently healthy volunteers (ages 17–66 years) with normal bowel function were asked to use a digital timer to record the net time needed for sensation of satisfactory emptying while defecating in three alternative positions: sitting on a standard-sized toilet seat (41–42 cm high), sitting on a lower toilet seat (31–32 cm high), and squatting. They were also asked to note their subjective impression of the intensity of the defecation effort. Six consecutive bowel movements were recorded in each position. Both the time needed for sensation of satisfactory bowel emptying and the degree of subjectively assessed straining in the squatting position were reduced sharply in all volunteers compared with both sitting positions. In conclusion, the present study confirmed that sensation of satisfactory bowel emptying in sitting defecation posture necessitates excessive expulsive effort compared to the squatting posture.” -Dov Sikirov-Comparison of Straining during Defecation in Three Positions: Results and Implications for Human Health- Digestive Diseases and Sciences- Vol: 48- No: 7- July 2003.
Since the above material is a very lengthy one I am placing an excerpt and I suggest that you go to the above URL to get the complete information.
“Seven Advantages of Squatting
2) Protects the nerves that control the prostate, bladder and uterus from becoming stretched and damaged.
3) Securely seals the ileocecal valve, between the colon and the small intestine. In the conventional sitting position, this valve is unsupported and often leaks during evacuation, contaminating the small intestine.
4) Relaxes the puborectalis muscle which normally chokes the rectum in order to maintain continence.
5) Uses the thighs to support the colon and prevent straining. Chronic straining on the toilet can cause hernias, diverticulosis, and pelvic organ prolapse.
6) A highly effective, non-invasive treatment for hemorrhoids, as shown by published clinical research.
7) For pregnant women, squatting avoids pressure on the uterus when using the toilet. Daily squatting helps prepare one for a more natural delivery.” (Courtesy: Health Benefits of the Natural Squatting Position)
I also liked the conclusion part of the above write up:
“For 150 years, the people of the Western World have been the unwitting subjects of an experiment. By an accident of Fate, they were forced to adopt sitting toilets, while the other two-thirds of the world (the "control group") continued to use the natural squatting position.
The results of this experiment have been clear and unequivocal. The experimental group has suffered dramatically higher rates of intestinal and urological disorders. The following diseases are almost exclusively confined to the Western World: appendicitis, colon cancer, prostate disorders, diverticulosis, bladder incontinence, hemorrhoids, and inflammatory bowel disease.
But the results have been misinterpreted by researchers who were unaware that the experiment was even taking place. Western doctors have tried to blame these diseases on the "highly refined" western diet. Their attempts have consistently failed to show that diet is a significant factor. Conventional medical websites all tell the same story:
This is a disease of the Western World. We don't know what causes it, or why the developing world seems so strangely immune.
Medical researchers have been working diligently to solve these deadly mysteries, but they have made little progress. Due to their habit of studying diseases in isolation, they failed to notice a remarkable coincidence: Many different bowel, bladder and pelvic diseases – previously rare or unknown – suddenly became commonplace in the last half of the 19th century.
This simple observation would have alerted them to the presence of a common underlying factor. It would have prompted the obvious question: What suddenly changed in the daily habits of the population?
The obvious answer: They abandoned the squatting posture for bodily functions (including childbirth.) For each disease, the anatomical relevance of this change has been explained above. The relevance is confirmed by the absence of these disorders among squatting populations.
In conclusion, the porcelain throne has caused enormous amounts of needless suffering, and the annual waste of billions of dollars in health-care costs. Clearly, the time has come to reacquaint Western Man with his natural habits – and put this unfortunate experiment to an end.” (Courtesy: Health Benefits of the Natural Squatting Position) .
As per the latest statistics available, 54% of the Indian population do not have the luxury of defecating in a toilet and adopt open defecation. That works to a whopping 11,59,93,178 toilets. There are many efforts by various interested parties to assist the population to construct their own toilets. Any effort in this direction should take into consideration the above facts and all the focus should be in providing ONLY Squatting Type Toilets.
This write up is part of the Kuckoos Campaign- a campaign against open defecation in India- a crusade to dissuade the last person squatting in the open before the first Indian lands on the Moon. Welcome to the Campaign. Endorse your support by following the Blog. Just become a Kuckoos follower.
P.Uday Shankar
Thursday, June 10, 2010
Open Defecation in Urban India- Government Ranks Cities Based on Sanitation Levels
6-06/10
My thoughts went back to my own home town, Coimbatore, when years back it took one Municipal Commissioner to make an everlasting change in the city. As a school going boy I had always remembered buildings belonging to the Municipality as places where people urinate anytime or defecate in the dark. It was one person who made a change by painting all Municipal buildings grey and white. Compound walls of Municipal buildings were painted and strips of road-side gardens cropped up everywhere. I still remember the name of the person who did this as much as the citizens of Coimbatore- Mr Niranjan Mardi. His two pronged strategy did pay dividends. He not only painted the buildings and gave them a place of pride among the citizens but also gave a serious look ‘inside’. He successfully thwarted the red tapism which was a virtual rot in the system then. This I can say with all impunity because my mother who retired as a teacher in the Municipality during that time had her retirement papers moved fast enough to get her benefits, which otherwise would have been buried ‘deliberately’ under files.
How long are we going to depend on such one person miracles to happen in our cities? It is high time we brought in a sea change in the system. What prevents all employees of a Municipality or a Corporation to behave like a Niranjan Mardi? The rot has become systemic and it is in the DNA. It is like the residual effect of pesticides, traces of which can be found in human blood.
Despite all the rot, hats off to all those young Commissioners who are striving to make a dent in their cities by improving the level of sanitation. This method of grading cities will surely help in moving up the scale to reach the top. This sense of competition has to be infused in the minds of all stakeholders and the foremost is the common man. The message of this competition has to reach the common man so that he also strives to keep his/her city clean. This was my intention of placing this news on my Blog.
Descriptions of the methodology adopted by the Ministry- All indicators have been allotted marks and the overall assessment is on a scale from 0 to 100:
“1. Ouput-related - 50*
A. No open defecation sub-total- 16
i. Access and use of toilets by urban poor and other un-served households (including slums) - individual and community sanitation facilities- 4
ii. Access and use of toilets for floating and institutional populations - adequate public sanitation facilities- 4
iii. No open defecation visible- 4
iv. Eliminate Manual Scavenging and provide personnel protection equipment to sanitary workers- 4
B. Proportion of total human excreta generation that is safely collected (6 points for 100%) - 6
C. Proportion of total black waste water generation that is treated and safely disposed off (6 points for 100%) - 6
D. Proportion of total grey waste water generation that is treated and safely disposed off (3 points for 100%) - 3
E. Proportion of treated water that is recycled and reused for non-potable applications - 3
F. Proportion of total storm-water and drainage that is efficiently and safely managed (3 points for 100%) - 3
G. Proportion of total solid waste generation that is regularly collected (4 points for 100%) - 4
H. Proportion of total solid waste generation that is treated and safely disposed off (4 points for 100%) - 4
I. City wastes cause no adverse impacts on surrounding areas outside city limits (5 points for 100%) - 5
2. Process-related** 30
A. M&E systems are in place to track incidences of open defecation - 4
B. All sewerage systems in the city are working properly and there is no ex-filtration (Not applicable for cities without sewerage systems) - 5
C. Septage/sludge is regularly cleaned, safely transported and disposed after treatment, from on-site systems in the city (MAXIMUM 10 marks for cities without sewerage systems) - 5
D. Underground and Surface drainage systems are functioning and are well-maintained - 4
E. Solid waste management (collection and treatment) systems are efficient (and are in conformity with the MSW Rules, 2003) - 5
F. There is clear institutional responsibility assigned; and there are documented operational systems in practice for b)/c) to e) above - 4
G. Sanctions for deviance on part of polluters and institutions is clearly laid out and followed in practice - 3
3. Outcome-related 20
A. Improved quality of drinking water in city compared to baseline 7
B. Improved water quality in water bodies in and around city compared to baseline - 7
C. Reduction in water-borne disease incidence amongst city population compared to baseline - 6
* The marks for the above indicators will be revised every two to three years. Over time, indicators about
more stringent conditions e.g. no-urination, or spitting in open/public spaces, etc. will be introduced as
indicators. The weights accorded to each category and specific indicators will also be revised
** In this context, bigger cities may consider instituting good practice systems that comply with ISO (International
Standards Organization) and/or BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) process systems.
You may note from the list of cities that none of the cities have qualified themselves for the ‘ Green Healthy and Clean City category of 91 to 100 marks. The city on the top of the list Chandigarh is still at a low 73.48 and has a long way to make it to the Green slot. I was surprised to find my home town Coimbatore down at 92nd place and Nagpur at 239th place.
In case you are interested to know where your city/town in India is placed you may refer the following site:
Source:
National Urban Sanitation Supply-Ministry of Urban Development
The entire list of ranked 423 cities/towns is available here: Ranking of 423 cities in India
The Urban Sanitation Wing of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India has published a list of 423 cities and towns in India as per a Sanitation Ranking adopted by the Government. Keeping in mind the MDG Goals and the need to hasten up the process of abolishing open defecation, the Ministry needs to be commended for the initiative to rank Indian cities on the basis of various indicators.
Open defecation continues to be a menace in the towns and cities too, apart from the villages where it is still rampant. Having travelled across India I have always compared towns and cities based on their level of sanitation and cleanliness. A city as old as Varanasi was always bound to have a lower scale on my estimation compared to planned cities like Pondicherry or Chandigarh. How long are we going to tolerate this apathy on matters related to sanitation when it comes to old cities? When are these cities going to learn from other old cities which have made strides in sanitation? I had recently been to Nagpur and the first thing that appealed me was the effort taken by the Corporation to cleanse the city. When asked how this has happened, the locals remember a Commissioner from Andhra Pradesh who was responsible for the sweeping changes in Nagpur.
My thoughts went back to my own home town, Coimbatore, when years back it took one Municipal Commissioner to make an everlasting change in the city. As a school going boy I had always remembered buildings belonging to the Municipality as places where people urinate anytime or defecate in the dark. It was one person who made a change by painting all Municipal buildings grey and white. Compound walls of Municipal buildings were painted and strips of road-side gardens cropped up everywhere. I still remember the name of the person who did this as much as the citizens of Coimbatore- Mr Niranjan Mardi. His two pronged strategy did pay dividends. He not only painted the buildings and gave them a place of pride among the citizens but also gave a serious look ‘inside’. He successfully thwarted the red tapism which was a virtual rot in the system then. This I can say with all impunity because my mother who retired as a teacher in the Municipality during that time had her retirement papers moved fast enough to get her benefits, which otherwise would have been buried ‘deliberately’ under files.
How long are we going to depend on such one person miracles to happen in our cities? It is high time we brought in a sea change in the system. What prevents all employees of a Municipality or a Corporation to behave like a Niranjan Mardi? The rot has become systemic and it is in the DNA. It is like the residual effect of pesticides, traces of which can be found in human blood.
Despite all the rot, hats off to all those young Commissioners who are striving to make a dent in their cities by improving the level of sanitation. This method of grading cities will surely help in moving up the scale to reach the top. This sense of competition has to be infused in the minds of all stakeholders and the foremost is the common man. The message of this competition has to reach the common man so that he also strives to keep his/her city clean. This was my intention of placing this news on my Blog.
Descriptions of the methodology adopted by the Ministry- All indicators have been allotted marks and the overall assessment is on a scale from 0 to 100:
“1. Ouput-related - 50*
A. No open defecation sub-total- 16
i. Access and use of toilets by urban poor and other un-served households (including slums) - individual and community sanitation facilities- 4
ii. Access and use of toilets for floating and institutional populations - adequate public sanitation facilities- 4
iii. No open defecation visible- 4
iv. Eliminate Manual Scavenging and provide personnel protection equipment to sanitary workers- 4
B. Proportion of total human excreta generation that is safely collected (6 points for 100%) - 6
C. Proportion of total black waste water generation that is treated and safely disposed off (6 points for 100%) - 6
D. Proportion of total grey waste water generation that is treated and safely disposed off (3 points for 100%) - 3
E. Proportion of treated water that is recycled and reused for non-potable applications - 3
F. Proportion of total storm-water and drainage that is efficiently and safely managed (3 points for 100%) - 3
G. Proportion of total solid waste generation that is regularly collected (4 points for 100%) - 4
H. Proportion of total solid waste generation that is treated and safely disposed off (4 points for 100%) - 4
I. City wastes cause no adverse impacts on surrounding areas outside city limits (5 points for 100%) - 5
2. Process-related** 30
A. M&E systems are in place to track incidences of open defecation - 4
B. All sewerage systems in the city are working properly and there is no ex-filtration (Not applicable for cities without sewerage systems) - 5
C. Septage/sludge is regularly cleaned, safely transported and disposed after treatment, from on-site systems in the city (MAXIMUM 10 marks for cities without sewerage systems) - 5
D. Underground and Surface drainage systems are functioning and are well-maintained - 4
E. Solid waste management (collection and treatment) systems are efficient (and are in conformity with the MSW Rules, 2003) - 5
F. There is clear institutional responsibility assigned; and there are documented operational systems in practice for b)/c) to e) above - 4
G. Sanctions for deviance on part of polluters and institutions is clearly laid out and followed in practice - 3
3. Outcome-related 20
A. Improved quality of drinking water in city compared to baseline 7
B. Improved water quality in water bodies in and around city compared to baseline - 7
C. Reduction in water-borne disease incidence amongst city population compared to baseline - 6
* The marks for the above indicators will be revised every two to three years. Over time, indicators about
more stringent conditions e.g. no-urination, or spitting in open/public spaces, etc. will be introduced as
indicators. The weights accorded to each category and specific indicators will also be revised
** In this context, bigger cities may consider instituting good practice systems that comply with ISO (International
Standards Organization) and/or BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) process systems.
Based on the above ratings a colour coding has been given by the Ministry:
1. Red Cities on the brink of public health and environmental “emergency” and needing immediate remedial action - less than 33
1. Red Cities on the brink of public health and environmental “emergency” and needing immediate remedial action - less than 33
2. Black Needing considerable improvements - 34-66
3. Blue Recovering but still diseased – 67-90
4. Green Healthy and Clean city – 91 – 100
■ On the basis of plans prepared and implemented, cities will be able to measure the results of their actions, and be able to clearly chart out their improvements over time compared to their baseline situation.
■ On achievement of remarkable results, i.e. coming into the Green category (Healthy and Clean City), cities will typically become eligible for the national award. Other cities showing remarkable incremental performance or selective achievements may also be given special or honorary awards. Cities in different size-classes may also be considered for category-wise awards.
■ Based on results of the Rating survey and selection of awardees, cities will be invited to participate in a National Urban Sanitation Award ceremony.”
You may note from the list of cities that none of the cities have qualified themselves for the ‘ Green Healthy and Clean City category of 91 to 100 marks. The city on the top of the list Chandigarh is still at a low 73.48 and has a long way to make it to the Green slot. I was surprised to find my home town Coimbatore down at 92nd place and Nagpur at 239th place.
In case you are interested to know where your city/town in India is placed you may refer the following site:
Source:
National Urban Sanitation Supply-Ministry of Urban Development
The entire list of ranked 423 cities/towns is available here: Ranking of 423 cities in India
P.Uday Shankar
Friday, May 21, 2010
Sanitation during British Rule in India- Florence Nightingale’s Contribution
5-5/10
In my search for evidence of efforts for reforms in sanitation by the administrations in the past, I bumped on a work by the famous Lady with the Lamp- Florence Nightingale. It was the time when the British crown had taken over the country from the East India Company and had a formidable presence of British Army in India. Back home the upper class in Britain found a chance for their graduating children to get into the Indian Civil Service. On the other side it was obvious that soldiers of the British Army were mostly from the working class in British. While the elite managed to get housed in all the comfort and in cool places like Simla and Ooty, the foot soldiers had to bear the brunt of the tropical climate most of the time. Sanitation was one of the conspicuously neglected areas of public health in those times and it affected the British soldiers too.
The following literature gives a good account of Florence Nightingale’s intervention into the sanitary problems faced by the British soldiers and the Indian public:
“…..India was the responsibility of the East India Company based on the Calcutta, Bombay and Madras States surrounding these areas were either co-operative or hostile, as it suited them. If any proved troublesome the Company's private armies would move in.
In the May of 1857 the Indian Mutiny broke out. It began in the Bengal army, its immediate cause was the supply to native troops ammunition which had been greased with animal fat unacceptable to both Moslems and Hindus on religious grounds. (cow fat which upset the Hindus, or pig fat which offended Muslims). It was used as a pretext to anti-British feelings, so that when the Sepoys at Meerut rebelled against their English Officers and murdered them, the mutiny spread quickly throughout India. Mutineers marched to Delhi, and proclaimed allegiance to an elderly survivor of the old Mogul Imperial house. They surrounded Lucknow and Cawnpore. In spite of promises to spare British troops and their families who surrendered, murdered all those who did so at Cawnpore.
Order was established in the Autumn of 1858. When British Troops recaptured the towns, they took a bloody revenge. The India Act 1858, removed administration powers from the East India Company to the Crown, and incorporated the Company's troops in the British Army. The post of secretary of state for India was created, and instead of a Governor-General, there was a Vicroy.
The Secretary of State for India controlled the India Office in King Charles Street, Westminster, which acted as a communicating channel between the government in India and the government in London. It had a long history from the days of the East India Company, the Secretary of State and his officals had worked in the East India House in Leadenhall Street until it was sold in 1861. The India Office was responsible for the recruitment of officals sent out from Britain to govern India. The Indian Civil Service was the goal of ambitious university graduates, of the upper-middle class of British Society. The men who ruled India were seldom interested in India or the people who lived there. They often had a cynical and uncomplimentary opinion of those Indian they met. The Indians, too, very often preferred to keep their distance. They felt their task was to administer well, maintain order, peace and justice not to reform.
The seat of the British Government in India, was Government House Calcutta. It was built in 1803 by the fourth Governor-General Lord Wellesley. From the 1860`s the building was shuttered up for seven months of the year, while the Vicroy`s retreated 1,000 miles north-west to the cool of Simla in the Himalayas.
India was occupying Miss Nightingale's attention. There was an appallingly high mortality from sickness among British troops in India. They had to drill for hours on shadeless barrack squares in hot weather. There was little opportunity to change their uniform, the diet was also unsuitable. In 1859 the average death rate among British soldiers serving in India during the past 40 years was sixty-nine out of every thousand were dying due to poor conditions. The warrant setting up the Commission was set up on May 19th 1859. Sidney Herbert was chairman but had resigned when he became Secretary of State for war in June of the same year. There were three sanitary experts which included; Dr Alexander and Dr Sutherland, the statistician Dr Farr and two members of the India Council, who sat on the Commission. They were never to go to India, but collected information over great distances.
Miss Nightingale decided that she would collect as much information as possible on conditions of the army stations in India. With the change of power in India, from the East India Company, to the India Office, many of the records had not been transferred, and members of the Company were not very helpful, also Miss Nightingale could not find any useful figures, she and Dr Farr could work on. She decided to collect the information herself and she drafted a `Circular of Enquiry` which was sent to every military station in India. The questions asked related to sickness mortality, the age and length of service of each man. Also the facts on hospitals and barrack accommodation. The returned reports filled a whole room. Although Miss Nightingale had collected so much information, she was not actually a member of the Commission, and she should not be called as a witness. In October 1861 she was officially invited to submit her `Remarks` on the Station Reports. She completed her analysis in 1862 under the title of `Observations`.
Miss Nightingale had a number of her work `Observations` printed privately and she sent a copy to Queen Victoria, to Cabinet Ministers and to members of the India Council. Her statistics showed that the death rate in the British Army was 69 per 1000. They mainly died of over-crowding, lack of drainage, bad water, the climate also paid a part, also the native populations living close by in appalling filth. The barracks were of poor construction being built of loath and plaster, the floors of earth, varnished over with cow dung. No drainage whatever existed, and the drinking water was either described in the station reports she received as `smells good` or `smells bad`, one station sent back a chemical analysis of its water stating it was `like an intricate prescription.`
The troops had no means of recreation and no opportunities for exercise. During hot weather they had to stay in their barracks from 8am to 5pm. Hospitals were not much better, and men would conceal their illness rather than go their. Compared to the Native troops they were living in luxury. The native troops had no barracks, lavatories, baths or kitchens, and they did not receive any rations.
To improve the conditions of the Army in India posed a new problem. In England the living conditions of the Army fell well below that of the towns in which the troops were stationed. In India their conditions were already well above those of the natives. This would mean raising the sanitary conditions for the country as a whole.
The Report was published but it was not welcome. The Government was having great difficulties in India, with the transfer of authority from the East India Company to the India Office so recent, there had not been time to rectify what had been in the Report. It was also felt that the report exaggerated and the statistic incorrect.
The Clerk to the Commission prepared a shorter version of her report leaving out much of the facts her report was based on. It was the only edition on sale to the public, and presented to both Houses of Parliament. Miss Nightingale original report, of which 1,000 copies had been printed. These copies were not obtainable, and were `reserved` by the Government. Miss Nightingale's report was contained in two enormous volumes, comprising of 2028 closely printed pages.
Miss Nightingale found it absurd that the only report available for anyone to read had omitted the evidence she had collected at the instruction of the Government. So she persuaded Lord de Grey to allow her to rewrite it. Miss Nightingale persisted and finally she was allowed to proceed, it included an official preface by Lord de Grey, he recommended it to the attention of commanding medical and engineering officers.
It was now her work would begin persuading the Officials to act upon the commissions report. An official despatch was sent to India, suggesting the formation of sanitary commissions in each Presidency. Also that two additional members to represent India were added to the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission. These suggestions met with an out cry from officials in the India Office and in the War Office. They still would not accept the details of the Commissions report stating that it was not correct and out of date. Her work had come to a temporary halt.
In 1863, Sir John Lawrence took over as Viceroy after the death of Lord Elgin. Miss Nightingale knew him well and felt that once again she could continue with her work in India. She had never been to India, her knowledge had been gained by her work on the Station Reports, but she was consulted by men who had lived there all their working lives. Lord Stanley had requested that Sir John Lawrence should speak to Miss Nightingale about sanitary reform in India, he did so, on December 4th 1863, a week before he was to leave for India. The meeting was a success, and she was to send out full statements and schemes of what the Presidency Commissions were to do. Lord de Grey asked her to draft an official document from the War Office to the India Office enquiring what steps they proposed to take to carry out the recommendations of the Indian Sanitary Commission.
In January 1864 Miss Nightingale with Dr Sutherland, Dr Farr and Sir Robert Rawlinson completed `Suggestions in regard to Sanitary Works required for the Improvement of Indian Stations`. It was the first sanitary code for India, giving details of water supply, drainage, sanitation, hospital and barrack construction. The report was sent to the War Office. Sir John Lawrence had written asking what had become of the report, all she could reply was it had been sent to the War Office. There had been a delay because the War Office and the India Office had fallen out. The India Office would not accept the recommendations given by the War Office on the Indian Sanitary Commission. The Vicroy was willing and had already set up the Presidency Sanitary Commissions but they were unable to do anything until they received the Governments instructions for action contained the `Suggestions.` The conflict between the two offices was solved by a phrase on the title page. Although the Indian Sanitary Commissi9on had been a War Office Commission, the title page stated that the `Suggestions` had been `prepared by the said Commission in accordance with letters from the Secretary of State for India in Council`. Miss Nightingale then set about having copies printed at her own expense.
With the help of the Commander-in-Chief, Sir Hugh Rose, sanitary work in the army was soon under way. He had been contacted about the recommendations in the Indian Sanitary Report which affected regiments. He had agreed with the report and acted immediately. Recreation rooms and workshops were opened, gardens were laid out to provide troops vegetable. Libraries, savings banks and courses of instruction in trades started. Drinking was reduced, by cutting the ration and prohibiting the sale of liquor near the barracks, if caught it would incur a heavy fine.
Although Sir John Lawrence was a success personally with Miss Nightingale, he was not a success as a Vicroy. Financially and administratively India was in disorder, mainly due to the increase in military expenditure. Sir Hugh Rose had achieved a great deal for the army, all other plans were getting no where. Also the Sanitary Commissions set up in the Presidencies were secondary to their local Government.
Mr Ellis a friend of Sir John Lawrence had returned to England in 1865 to study sanitary works. He stayed with Miss Nightingale, and she arranged for Dr Sutherland to accompany him to barracks, hospitals and institutions.
Sir Charles Wood secretary of State for India resigned, and was succeeded by Lord de Grey, he was on Miss Nightingale's side for her reforms. All was not well as the Government fell in June 1866, Lord de Grey was out of office. In the months before the Government fell she had been working on a plan for a public health service in India, one again she had been defeated, and now felt her influence in the Government was now over. Lord de Grey was succeeded by Lord Cranborne. Before Lord Cranborne could do anything about India he resigned, and Sir Stafford Northcote took over, he was unknown to Miss Nightingale. Sir Bartle Frere, and Indian administrator, had been appointed to a seat on the India Council after being Governor of Bombay. He had been anxious to talk with Miss Nightingale which he did and they were to become close friends. For the next two months they were to meet almost daily, and she learnt a lot from him of life in India.
Miss Nightingale wrote to Sir Stafford Northcote about the importance of establishment of an Indian public-health service. It was important that she should impress him and get him on her side, as he may be her last chance. On August 20th 1867, He called at South Street, she felt the meeting was a success. He came to see her again in October, they agreed on the names for the members of the Indian Sanitary Committee, the Committee was to act only on a consultative capacity. He asked her to draft an answer to a despatch received from the Government of India relating to the appointment and pay of medical officers, also for her to prepare a summary of the progress of the whole Indian Sanitary question from the setting up of the Sanitary Commission in 1859 to 1867. The despatch was sent, reports were received from the Presidencies which were printed as a Blue Book in 1868 under the title of the India Office Sanitary Annual, together with Miss Nightingales summary of the Indian sanitary question, her memorandum on it and a copy of the despatch itself. At last she had accomplished something, she had secured a Sanitary Department in the India Office.
When the Annual Reports of the Sanitary Departments were received they were directed to her. Dr Hathaway the private secretary to the Vicroy, Dr Hewlett, sanitary officer for Bombay, Dr Cummingham, sanitary advisor to the Government of India, all corresponded with her and became friends. She was called on by Mr Ellis, President of the Madras Sanitary Commission, Dr Walker, and Mr John Strachey, the first President of the Bengal Sanitary Commission. In 1870 she was selected as an honorary member of the Bengal Social Science Association. Lord Napier, an old friend of Miss Nightingale had been appointed, in 1865, Governor of Madras. He had made many changes roads, schools, drainage and irrigation. Under the direction of Lady Napier, female nurses had gradually introduced into Indian hospitals.
During 1864, Miss Nightingale and Douglas Galton had been working on plans for a model barrack in India. A single plan would not do as the climate was very different throughout the Country. So she defined the essential features which each barrack should have. It would be up to local authorities to adapt them to local conditions. A grant of seven million was given, and work began at once. The work was to be carried out by the Royal Engineers, they were determined to build the barracks without any influence, or advice from civilians. They produced standard plans, to be used all over India. Disaster followed when the troops moved in. Cholera broke out in the new barracks at Allahabad, Lucknow, Morar and Jullundur. Many men were moved back to the old barracks. Those who approved of sanitary reform in the War Office were now beginning to doubt the need for it. Lord Mayo wrote to Miss Nightingale in 1870 about the failure of the barracks, and she felt that her influence over him may be weakening. Sadly in 1872, while Lord Mayo was inspecting a penal settlement he was killed by a convict. He was succeeded by Lord Northbrook.
In 1877 famine hit the Presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The following year a committee was set up to find a way of preventing famine in the future, by constructing irrigation works. Miss Nightingale had spoken to Sir Arthur Cotton three years earlier about his irrigation work. He had irrigated Trichinopoly and Sout Arcot in Southern India, by building two dams across the river Coleroon, and these areas had not suffered loss of life during the famine. The Government of India would not agree to large scale irrigation as it would be too costly.
In July 1883, Miss Nightingale wrote to the Queen about the `Ilbert` Bill which gave increased powers to native magistrates. Since 1858 Indians had been allowed to enter the Civil Service and in spite of the fact that promotion was by no means made easy, certain of them reached the rank of District Magistrate, yet because Englishmen could be tried only by English magistrates, an Indian District Magistrate could find himself without authority to try cases which were within the authority of his subordinates. Later that month Miss Nightingale forwarded some figures with deepest reverence and highest hopes `for all the great measures by which the Viceroy is bringing peace to the people of India and fulfilling England's pledges, and the love and blessing of India's people be upon him!` Miss Nightingale helped Lord Ripon on Indian affairs and acted as a reference library for him. Lord Roberts became the new Commander in Chief in 1881, a scheme was introduced to all candidates for the Indian Civil Service. This was to include one years study at University to include agriculture, chemistry, botany, geology, forestry and animal physiology. The lecturer was Sir George Campbell.
The Ilbert Bill was passed in January 1884. The situation in India gave Miss Nightingale reasonable grounds for hope. Unexpectedly Lord Ripon resigned, his term of office had not expired. So great was the personal animosity against him that he considered his best course was to secure a suitable successor and go home.
With co-operation of Lord Roberts she obtained official sanction for the employment of female nurses in the military hospitals in India, at Umballa and Rawalpindi. Lord Roberts also established a soldiers club or a regimental institute in every station in India, opened coffee houses and founded an Army Temperance Association.
Her final crusade for the people of India began in 1891, when she was seventy-one. The People were poor, without proper sanitation they would not have a good water supply. As they were not fit to work, how could they pay the extra taxation to provide the necessary work under the Bombay Sanitation Act. She set out a plan for a new taxation system, which she set out in a memorandum. It was signed by Douglas Galton and other sanitary experts, and was sent to the Secretary for State for India, who then forwarded it to the Vicroy Lord Lansdowne. In 1894 she received an answer, the Government of India could not accept her suggestion, but would press the claim of sanitation upon local governments and administrators as opportunity offered. This was Miss Nightingale’s final active work in India, but still continued in an advisory capacity.”
Angered by the presence of Open Defecation in my country even in this Millennium, I was trying to trace down the pages of history to find where we went wrong. For a country which still now boasts of the civic sense of the age old Indus Civilisation in 2500 BC for their sanitary devices and sewage systems, I was wondering where we went wrong. Was it during the Hindu Raj, Muslim Raj or the British Raj? At one point of time I thought why I should blame the administrators alone for the plight of India’s present state of affairs of sanitation. What were the people doing all the time? The condition was so grim that before the advent of the British, virtually the whole nation was defecating in the open with the exception of a few rich people who could afford to have some rudimentary method of easing themselves out in the precincts of their houses.
In my search for evidence of efforts for reforms in sanitation by the administrations in the past, I bumped on a work by the famous Lady with the Lamp- Florence Nightingale. It was the time when the British crown had taken over the country from the East India Company and had a formidable presence of British Army in India. Back home the upper class in Britain found a chance for their graduating children to get into the Indian Civil Service. On the other side it was obvious that soldiers of the British Army were mostly from the working class in British. While the elite managed to get housed in all the comfort and in cool places like Simla and Ooty, the foot soldiers had to bear the brunt of the tropical climate most of the time. Sanitation was one of the conspicuously neglected areas of public health in those times and it affected the British soldiers too.
The following literature gives a good account of Florence Nightingale’s intervention into the sanitary problems faced by the British soldiers and the Indian public:
“…..India was the responsibility of the East India Company based on the Calcutta, Bombay and Madras States surrounding these areas were either co-operative or hostile, as it suited them. If any proved troublesome the Company's private armies would move in.
In the May of 1857 the Indian Mutiny broke out. It began in the Bengal army, its immediate cause was the supply to native troops ammunition which had been greased with animal fat unacceptable to both Moslems and Hindus on religious grounds. (cow fat which upset the Hindus, or pig fat which offended Muslims). It was used as a pretext to anti-British feelings, so that when the Sepoys at Meerut rebelled against their English Officers and murdered them, the mutiny spread quickly throughout India. Mutineers marched to Delhi, and proclaimed allegiance to an elderly survivor of the old Mogul Imperial house. They surrounded Lucknow and Cawnpore. In spite of promises to spare British troops and their families who surrendered, murdered all those who did so at Cawnpore.
Order was established in the Autumn of 1858. When British Troops recaptured the towns, they took a bloody revenge. The India Act 1858, removed administration powers from the East India Company to the Crown, and incorporated the Company's troops in the British Army. The post of secretary of state for India was created, and instead of a Governor-General, there was a Vicroy.
The Secretary of State for India controlled the India Office in King Charles Street, Westminster, which acted as a communicating channel between the government in India and the government in London. It had a long history from the days of the East India Company, the Secretary of State and his officals had worked in the East India House in Leadenhall Street until it was sold in 1861. The India Office was responsible for the recruitment of officals sent out from Britain to govern India. The Indian Civil Service was the goal of ambitious university graduates, of the upper-middle class of British Society. The men who ruled India were seldom interested in India or the people who lived there. They often had a cynical and uncomplimentary opinion of those Indian they met. The Indians, too, very often preferred to keep their distance. They felt their task was to administer well, maintain order, peace and justice not to reform.
The seat of the British Government in India, was Government House Calcutta. It was built in 1803 by the fourth Governor-General Lord Wellesley. From the 1860`s the building was shuttered up for seven months of the year, while the Vicroy`s retreated 1,000 miles north-west to the cool of Simla in the Himalayas.
India was occupying Miss Nightingale's attention. There was an appallingly high mortality from sickness among British troops in India. They had to drill for hours on shadeless barrack squares in hot weather. There was little opportunity to change their uniform, the diet was also unsuitable. In 1859 the average death rate among British soldiers serving in India during the past 40 years was sixty-nine out of every thousand were dying due to poor conditions. The warrant setting up the Commission was set up on May 19th 1859. Sidney Herbert was chairman but had resigned when he became Secretary of State for war in June of the same year. There were three sanitary experts which included; Dr Alexander and Dr Sutherland, the statistician Dr Farr and two members of the India Council, who sat on the Commission. They were never to go to India, but collected information over great distances.
Miss Nightingale decided that she would collect as much information as possible on conditions of the army stations in India. With the change of power in India, from the East India Company, to the India Office, many of the records had not been transferred, and members of the Company were not very helpful, also Miss Nightingale could not find any useful figures, she and Dr Farr could work on. She decided to collect the information herself and she drafted a `Circular of Enquiry` which was sent to every military station in India. The questions asked related to sickness mortality, the age and length of service of each man. Also the facts on hospitals and barrack accommodation. The returned reports filled a whole room. Although Miss Nightingale had collected so much information, she was not actually a member of the Commission, and she should not be called as a witness. In October 1861 she was officially invited to submit her `Remarks` on the Station Reports. She completed her analysis in 1862 under the title of `Observations`.
Miss Nightingale had a number of her work `Observations` printed privately and she sent a copy to Queen Victoria, to Cabinet Ministers and to members of the India Council. Her statistics showed that the death rate in the British Army was 69 per 1000. They mainly died of over-crowding, lack of drainage, bad water, the climate also paid a part, also the native populations living close by in appalling filth. The barracks were of poor construction being built of loath and plaster, the floors of earth, varnished over with cow dung. No drainage whatever existed, and the drinking water was either described in the station reports she received as `smells good` or `smells bad`, one station sent back a chemical analysis of its water stating it was `like an intricate prescription.`
The troops had no means of recreation and no opportunities for exercise. During hot weather they had to stay in their barracks from 8am to 5pm. Hospitals were not much better, and men would conceal their illness rather than go their. Compared to the Native troops they were living in luxury. The native troops had no barracks, lavatories, baths or kitchens, and they did not receive any rations.
To improve the conditions of the Army in India posed a new problem. In England the living conditions of the Army fell well below that of the towns in which the troops were stationed. In India their conditions were already well above those of the natives. This would mean raising the sanitary conditions for the country as a whole.
The Report was published but it was not welcome. The Government was having great difficulties in India, with the transfer of authority from the East India Company to the India Office so recent, there had not been time to rectify what had been in the Report. It was also felt that the report exaggerated and the statistic incorrect.
The Clerk to the Commission prepared a shorter version of her report leaving out much of the facts her report was based on. It was the only edition on sale to the public, and presented to both Houses of Parliament. Miss Nightingale original report, of which 1,000 copies had been printed. These copies were not obtainable, and were `reserved` by the Government. Miss Nightingale's report was contained in two enormous volumes, comprising of 2028 closely printed pages.
Miss Nightingale found it absurd that the only report available for anyone to read had omitted the evidence she had collected at the instruction of the Government. So she persuaded Lord de Grey to allow her to rewrite it. Miss Nightingale persisted and finally she was allowed to proceed, it included an official preface by Lord de Grey, he recommended it to the attention of commanding medical and engineering officers.
It was now her work would begin persuading the Officials to act upon the commissions report. An official despatch was sent to India, suggesting the formation of sanitary commissions in each Presidency. Also that two additional members to represent India were added to the Barrack and Hospital Improvement Commission. These suggestions met with an out cry from officials in the India Office and in the War Office. They still would not accept the details of the Commissions report stating that it was not correct and out of date. Her work had come to a temporary halt.
In 1863, Sir John Lawrence took over as Viceroy after the death of Lord Elgin. Miss Nightingale knew him well and felt that once again she could continue with her work in India. She had never been to India, her knowledge had been gained by her work on the Station Reports, but she was consulted by men who had lived there all their working lives. Lord Stanley had requested that Sir John Lawrence should speak to Miss Nightingale about sanitary reform in India, he did so, on December 4th 1863, a week before he was to leave for India. The meeting was a success, and she was to send out full statements and schemes of what the Presidency Commissions were to do. Lord de Grey asked her to draft an official document from the War Office to the India Office enquiring what steps they proposed to take to carry out the recommendations of the Indian Sanitary Commission.
In January 1864 Miss Nightingale with Dr Sutherland, Dr Farr and Sir Robert Rawlinson completed `Suggestions in regard to Sanitary Works required for the Improvement of Indian Stations`. It was the first sanitary code for India, giving details of water supply, drainage, sanitation, hospital and barrack construction. The report was sent to the War Office. Sir John Lawrence had written asking what had become of the report, all she could reply was it had been sent to the War Office. There had been a delay because the War Office and the India Office had fallen out. The India Office would not accept the recommendations given by the War Office on the Indian Sanitary Commission. The Vicroy was willing and had already set up the Presidency Sanitary Commissions but they were unable to do anything until they received the Governments instructions for action contained the `Suggestions.` The conflict between the two offices was solved by a phrase on the title page. Although the Indian Sanitary Commissi9on had been a War Office Commission, the title page stated that the `Suggestions` had been `prepared by the said Commission in accordance with letters from the Secretary of State for India in Council`. Miss Nightingale then set about having copies printed at her own expense.
With the help of the Commander-in-Chief, Sir Hugh Rose, sanitary work in the army was soon under way. He had been contacted about the recommendations in the Indian Sanitary Report which affected regiments. He had agreed with the report and acted immediately. Recreation rooms and workshops were opened, gardens were laid out to provide troops vegetable. Libraries, savings banks and courses of instruction in trades started. Drinking was reduced, by cutting the ration and prohibiting the sale of liquor near the barracks, if caught it would incur a heavy fine.
Although Sir John Lawrence was a success personally with Miss Nightingale, he was not a success as a Vicroy. Financially and administratively India was in disorder, mainly due to the increase in military expenditure. Sir Hugh Rose had achieved a great deal for the army, all other plans were getting no where. Also the Sanitary Commissions set up in the Presidencies were secondary to their local Government.
Mr Ellis a friend of Sir John Lawrence had returned to England in 1865 to study sanitary works. He stayed with Miss Nightingale, and she arranged for Dr Sutherland to accompany him to barracks, hospitals and institutions.
Sir Charles Wood secretary of State for India resigned, and was succeeded by Lord de Grey, he was on Miss Nightingale's side for her reforms. All was not well as the Government fell in June 1866, Lord de Grey was out of office. In the months before the Government fell she had been working on a plan for a public health service in India, one again she had been defeated, and now felt her influence in the Government was now over. Lord de Grey was succeeded by Lord Cranborne. Before Lord Cranborne could do anything about India he resigned, and Sir Stafford Northcote took over, he was unknown to Miss Nightingale. Sir Bartle Frere, and Indian administrator, had been appointed to a seat on the India Council after being Governor of Bombay. He had been anxious to talk with Miss Nightingale which he did and they were to become close friends. For the next two months they were to meet almost daily, and she learnt a lot from him of life in India.
Miss Nightingale wrote to Sir Stafford Northcote about the importance of establishment of an Indian public-health service. It was important that she should impress him and get him on her side, as he may be her last chance. On August 20th 1867, He called at South Street, she felt the meeting was a success. He came to see her again in October, they agreed on the names for the members of the Indian Sanitary Committee, the Committee was to act only on a consultative capacity. He asked her to draft an answer to a despatch received from the Government of India relating to the appointment and pay of medical officers, also for her to prepare a summary of the progress of the whole Indian Sanitary question from the setting up of the Sanitary Commission in 1859 to 1867. The despatch was sent, reports were received from the Presidencies which were printed as a Blue Book in 1868 under the title of the India Office Sanitary Annual, together with Miss Nightingales summary of the Indian sanitary question, her memorandum on it and a copy of the despatch itself. At last she had accomplished something, she had secured a Sanitary Department in the India Office.
When the Annual Reports of the Sanitary Departments were received they were directed to her. Dr Hathaway the private secretary to the Vicroy, Dr Hewlett, sanitary officer for Bombay, Dr Cummingham, sanitary advisor to the Government of India, all corresponded with her and became friends. She was called on by Mr Ellis, President of the Madras Sanitary Commission, Dr Walker, and Mr John Strachey, the first President of the Bengal Sanitary Commission. In 1870 she was selected as an honorary member of the Bengal Social Science Association. Lord Napier, an old friend of Miss Nightingale had been appointed, in 1865, Governor of Madras. He had made many changes roads, schools, drainage and irrigation. Under the direction of Lady Napier, female nurses had gradually introduced into Indian hospitals.
During 1864, Miss Nightingale and Douglas Galton had been working on plans for a model barrack in India. A single plan would not do as the climate was very different throughout the Country. So she defined the essential features which each barrack should have. It would be up to local authorities to adapt them to local conditions. A grant of seven million was given, and work began at once. The work was to be carried out by the Royal Engineers, they were determined to build the barracks without any influence, or advice from civilians. They produced standard plans, to be used all over India. Disaster followed when the troops moved in. Cholera broke out in the new barracks at Allahabad, Lucknow, Morar and Jullundur. Many men were moved back to the old barracks. Those who approved of sanitary reform in the War Office were now beginning to doubt the need for it. Lord Mayo wrote to Miss Nightingale in 1870 about the failure of the barracks, and she felt that her influence over him may be weakening. Sadly in 1872, while Lord Mayo was inspecting a penal settlement he was killed by a convict. He was succeeded by Lord Northbrook.
In 1877 famine hit the Presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The following year a committee was set up to find a way of preventing famine in the future, by constructing irrigation works. Miss Nightingale had spoken to Sir Arthur Cotton three years earlier about his irrigation work. He had irrigated Trichinopoly and Sout Arcot in Southern India, by building two dams across the river Coleroon, and these areas had not suffered loss of life during the famine. The Government of India would not agree to large scale irrigation as it would be too costly.
In July 1883, Miss Nightingale wrote to the Queen about the `Ilbert` Bill which gave increased powers to native magistrates. Since 1858 Indians had been allowed to enter the Civil Service and in spite of the fact that promotion was by no means made easy, certain of them reached the rank of District Magistrate, yet because Englishmen could be tried only by English magistrates, an Indian District Magistrate could find himself without authority to try cases which were within the authority of his subordinates. Later that month Miss Nightingale forwarded some figures with deepest reverence and highest hopes `for all the great measures by which the Viceroy is bringing peace to the people of India and fulfilling England's pledges, and the love and blessing of India's people be upon him!` Miss Nightingale helped Lord Ripon on Indian affairs and acted as a reference library for him. Lord Roberts became the new Commander in Chief in 1881, a scheme was introduced to all candidates for the Indian Civil Service. This was to include one years study at University to include agriculture, chemistry, botany, geology, forestry and animal physiology. The lecturer was Sir George Campbell.
The Ilbert Bill was passed in January 1884. The situation in India gave Miss Nightingale reasonable grounds for hope. Unexpectedly Lord Ripon resigned, his term of office had not expired. So great was the personal animosity against him that he considered his best course was to secure a suitable successor and go home.
With co-operation of Lord Roberts she obtained official sanction for the employment of female nurses in the military hospitals in India, at Umballa and Rawalpindi. Lord Roberts also established a soldiers club or a regimental institute in every station in India, opened coffee houses and founded an Army Temperance Association.
Her final crusade for the people of India began in 1891, when she was seventy-one. The People were poor, without proper sanitation they would not have a good water supply. As they were not fit to work, how could they pay the extra taxation to provide the necessary work under the Bombay Sanitation Act. She set out a plan for a new taxation system, which she set out in a memorandum. It was signed by Douglas Galton and other sanitary experts, and was sent to the Secretary for State for India, who then forwarded it to the Vicroy Lord Lansdowne. In 1894 she received an answer, the Government of India could not accept her suggestion, but would press the claim of sanitation upon local governments and administrators as opportunity offered. This was Miss Nightingale’s final active work in India, but still continued in an advisory capacity.”
Despite so much of effort to usher a new thinking about sanitation and public health in India, the fact ,sadly, remains that, Florence Nightingale had never visited India. I felt very sad when I came to know that she had done so much for India without visiting the country.
As a post script, I would like to end with the thought that if only the Lady with the Lamp had stepped on the Indian soil, the plight of Sanitation in India would not have been so bad as we see it today. The forthrightness with which she could convince the British Crown on the status of sanitation in India is amazing. The honesty of her massive work and the chivalry of her work execution could have been used in a better way if she had just made a visit to India at that point of time during her study or even after that.
P.Uday Shankar
Thursday, May 13, 2010
Open Defecation Spewing Out Two Tonnes of Gases Daily into the Indian Atmosphere
04-05/10
After having ascertained the quantity of fecal matter dumped on the Indian soil day in and day out, I was wondering how much of toxic gases would be emanating from the night soil into the atmosphere. Getting the basic data took some time, till I bumped on this research paper : Toxic gaseous substances liberated by human feces during storage by VV Kustov et al.
Based on my earlier findings, I worked out the amount of toxic gases and the quantum of dead and living bacteria and fungi in fecal matter left in the open.
My figures of fecal matter dumped on the Indian soil have been worked out under the assumption that an average Indian adult defecates 175 gms daily. For the purpose of arriving at the figures I have taken into account the quantum of fecal matter dumped because of open defecation by 54% of the population, fecal matter dumped on rail tracks by the Indian trains and also to some extent the open defecation by travelers on road and by pilgrims. The figure comes to a whopping 4,09,41,632 metric tonnes/year of fecal matter.
Toxic gases released into the environment:
1) Ammonia and Aliphatic amines: 68.37 tonnes
2) Mercaptans and hydrogen sulphides: only traces
3) Phenols: 7.79 tonnes
4) Indole and Skatole: 1.29 tonnes
5) Fatty Acids : 43.81 tonnes
6) Oxides of Nitrogen calculated as N2O5: 99.08 tonnes
7) Hydrocarbons calculated as CH4: 442.57 tonnes
8) Oxides of Carbon- As carbon mono oxide: 9.42 tonnes
9) Sulphur di oxide: 4.10 tonnes
Dead and living bacteria and fungi account for 25-30% of the dry weight of the feces (Kustov et al). The quantum of dead and living bacteria and fungi that spread out of the fecal matter dumped in the open works out to 30,41,374 tonnes/year.
In all, about 680 metric tonnes of greenhouse gases and non-greenhouse gases are spewed out into the open and 30,41,374 tonnes of dead and living bacteria and fungi are spread out of the night soil left in the open in a year on Indian soil & atmosphere due to open defecation and dumping of feces on railway tracks and roads.
Based on my earlier findings, I worked out the amount of toxic gases and the quantum of dead and living bacteria and fungi in fecal matter left in the open.
My figures of fecal matter dumped on the Indian soil have been worked out under the assumption that an average Indian adult defecates 175 gms daily. For the purpose of arriving at the figures I have taken into account the quantum of fecal matter dumped because of open defecation by 54% of the population, fecal matter dumped on rail tracks by the Indian trains and also to some extent the open defecation by travelers on road and by pilgrims. The figure comes to a whopping 4,09,41,632 metric tonnes/year of fecal matter.
Toxic gases released into the environment:
1) Ammonia and Aliphatic amines: 68.37 tonnes
2) Mercaptans and hydrogen sulphides: only traces
3) Phenols: 7.79 tonnes
4) Indole and Skatole: 1.29 tonnes
5) Fatty Acids : 43.81 tonnes
6) Oxides of Nitrogen calculated as N2O5: 99.08 tonnes
7) Hydrocarbons calculated as CH4: 442.57 tonnes
8) Oxides of Carbon- As carbon mono oxide: 9.42 tonnes
9) Sulphur di oxide: 4.10 tonnes
Dead and living bacteria and fungi account for 25-30% of the dry weight of the feces (Kustov et al). The quantum of dead and living bacteria and fungi that spread out of the fecal matter dumped in the open works out to 30,41,374 tonnes/year.
In all, about 680 metric tonnes of greenhouse gases and non-greenhouse gases are spewed out into the open and 30,41,374 tonnes of dead and living bacteria and fungi are spread out of the night soil left in the open in a year on Indian soil & atmosphere due to open defecation and dumping of feces on railway tracks and roads.
These figures should sound alarming to many of us. Some may question the veracity of the data or the calculations. They are again free to arrive at their own conclusions. All said and done the fact remains that the menace of open defecation has to be stopped at any cost.
Today we are gifted with a plethora of innovations by way of advancement of technology. We have to find out ways and means of judiciously harnessing fecal matter as the raw material for production of our future energy.
P.Uday Shankar.
Sunday, May 2, 2010
Indian Railways – A Suggestion to Produce Electricity from its own Passengers’ Fecal Matter
03-05/10
I just read an article yesterday in the New Indian Express dated 01.05.10 about the plight of toilets in India’s trains:
http://epaper.expressbuzz.com/NE/NE/2010/05/01/INDEX.SHTML
Or you can read the article here:
http://expressbuzz.com/magazine/trail-of-danger/168755.html
Having sanitation in the front of my mind, for sometime now, the article provoked me to take a close look at the problem and do some calculations last night.
When the first Indian trial run of a train was conducted between Bombay and Thane in 1843, later formally inaugurated from Bori Bunder on the 16th April 1853 and when the first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station destined for Hooghly on 15th August, 1854, who would have foreseen that the Indian Railways would one day become the largest railway network in the world, under single management, to carry the most number of passengers in the world.
The quintessential feature of the Indian Railways is the way it has spread to every nook and corner of the country. Apart from being one of the world’s largest rail networks it is also very intricate. A close look at the rail statistics will leave you wondering how this gargantuan task has been carried on by the huge work force deployed by the Indian Railways. It is simply amazing and intriguing. Despite all the great work there is one area that needs the immediate attention of the Government and that is the plight of toilets in the Indian trains.
There has been a general apathy in the Indian psyche, as far as matters pertaining to sanitation in the country, and this attitude seems to have set in deep in the minds of the Rail Ministry too. There have been very little efforts to modernize the toilets of Indian trains. In India, 54% of the population defecate in the open and we top the global list. If you consider the way the Indian trains litter the tracks as open defecation the percentage would still go up. The percentage would still go up if you are to consider pilgrims visiting temples and shrines who have no other go other than defecating in the open. For instance the 30 lakh pilgrims visiting Sabarimala have to do it in the open.
I just read an article yesterday in the New Indian Express dated 01.05.10 about the plight of toilets in India’s trains:
http://epaper.expressbuzz.com/NE/NE/2010/05/01/INDEX.SHTML
Or you can read the article here:
http://expressbuzz.com/magazine/trail-of-danger/168755.html
Having sanitation in the front of my mind, for sometime now, the article provoked me to take a close look at the problem and do some calculations last night.
When the first Indian trial run of a train was conducted between Bombay and Thane in 1843, later formally inaugurated from Bori Bunder on the 16th April 1853 and when the first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station destined for Hooghly on 15th August, 1854, who would have foreseen that the Indian Railways would one day become the largest railway network in the world, under single management, to carry the most number of passengers in the world.
The quintessential feature of the Indian Railways is the way it has spread to every nook and corner of the country. Apart from being one of the world’s largest rail networks it is also very intricate. A close look at the rail statistics will leave you wondering how this gargantuan task has been carried on by the huge work force deployed by the Indian Railways. It is simply amazing and intriguing. Despite all the great work there is one area that needs the immediate attention of the Government and that is the plight of toilets in the Indian trains.
There has been a general apathy in the Indian psyche, as far as matters pertaining to sanitation in the country, and this attitude seems to have set in deep in the minds of the Rail Ministry too. There have been very little efforts to modernize the toilets of Indian trains. In India, 54% of the population defecate in the open and we top the global list. If you consider the way the Indian trains litter the tracks as open defecation the percentage would still go up. The percentage would still go up if you are to consider pilgrims visiting temples and shrines who have no other go other than defecating in the open. For instance the 30 lakh pilgrims visiting Sabarimala have to do it in the open.
It is a national shame. Let us start thinking.
When the original idea of dumping the feces on the tracks was conceived during the early ages of the railways it was thought that the sun would take care of the sterilisation part. I am looking at the dumping of fecal matter on the railway tracks as a national wastage of a valuable resource.
Let us see how it works.
There are a whopping 25 million (2.5 cr) people travelling on Indian trains daily. As suburban trains (4000) constitute nearly 45% the total number of trains (8700), we are left out with 3100 passenger trains and 1600 express trains. The need for toilets is most felt in these 4700 trains. Presuming that only 10% of the 25 million (2.5 cr) people would be using the facility for defecation, we have 2.5 million (25 lakh) users daily. That amounts to 438 tonnes of fecal matter being wasted on the tracks daily by the railways. By improvisation of the toilets in such a way that the entire fecal matter is collected at designated stations, we could not only use the material for biogas production but also increase the potential users to, maybe another 10% (the hesitant lot who do not use the present facility). That would leave 50 lakh potential users of toilets for defecation daily in trains.
Through a concerted effort to collect the fecal matter and by introducing modern toilets in the railways we would be able to generate 12,80,000 m3 of biogas in a year and convert this biogas into 25,60,000 kWhs of electricity in a year. A part of the electricity need of the electric traction system can be met through this method. It would be a potential way of making carbon credits for the railways. The heat energy which is also a product of this process can be sold out by the railways.
Biogas is not rocket science. We were once upon a time pioneers in biogas along with the Chinese. Today they are way ahead. The Germans and a few other European countries have the required expertise and we can seek their help in this matter.
It is time for the Indian Railways to look at two urgent areas:
One, to improvise all the toilets in the trains in such a way that the present hesitation and inhibition in using them by passengers is completely removed.
Two, in the process of modernising toilets in trains, let them not loose track of the potential use of the fecal material.
However big the investment is going to be, the social cost of the project and the carbon credits will pay good dividends to the railways.
P. Uday Shankar
Coimbatore.
When the original idea of dumping the feces on the tracks was conceived during the early ages of the railways it was thought that the sun would take care of the sterilisation part. I am looking at the dumping of fecal matter on the railway tracks as a national wastage of a valuable resource.
Let us see how it works.
There are a whopping 25 million (2.5 cr) people travelling on Indian trains daily. As suburban trains (4000) constitute nearly 45% the total number of trains (8700), we are left out with 3100 passenger trains and 1600 express trains. The need for toilets is most felt in these 4700 trains. Presuming that only 10% of the 25 million (2.5 cr) people would be using the facility for defecation, we have 2.5 million (25 lakh) users daily. That amounts to 438 tonnes of fecal matter being wasted on the tracks daily by the railways. By improvisation of the toilets in such a way that the entire fecal matter is collected at designated stations, we could not only use the material for biogas production but also increase the potential users to, maybe another 10% (the hesitant lot who do not use the present facility). That would leave 50 lakh potential users of toilets for defecation daily in trains.
Through a concerted effort to collect the fecal matter and by introducing modern toilets in the railways we would be able to generate 12,80,000 m3 of biogas in a year and convert this biogas into 25,60,000 kWhs of electricity in a year. A part of the electricity need of the electric traction system can be met through this method. It would be a potential way of making carbon credits for the railways. The heat energy which is also a product of this process can be sold out by the railways.
Biogas is not rocket science. We were once upon a time pioneers in biogas along with the Chinese. Today they are way ahead. The Germans and a few other European countries have the required expertise and we can seek their help in this matter.
It is time for the Indian Railways to look at two urgent areas:
One, to improvise all the toilets in the trains in such a way that the present hesitation and inhibition in using them by passengers is completely removed.
Two, in the process of modernising toilets in trains, let them not loose track of the potential use of the fecal material.
However big the investment is going to be, the social cost of the project and the carbon credits will pay good dividends to the railways.
P. Uday Shankar
Coimbatore.
Tuesday, April 27, 2010
Unclean water kills 4,000 children daily: World Bank
02/04-10
JOIN THE KUCKOOS CAMPAIGN- a crusade to dissuade the last person squatting in the open before the first Indian lands on the Moon.
As per latest communiqué of the World Bank more than 4,000 children die every day across the globe due to lack of sanitation and access to clean water.
More information at : http://sify.com/news/unclean-water-kills-4-000-children-daily-says-world-bank-news-national-ke1wM1fcjhc.html
More information at : http://sify.com/news/unclean-water-kills-4-000-children-daily-says-world-bank-news-national-ke1wM1fcjhc.html
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JOIN THE KUCKOOS CAMPAIGN- a crusade to dissuade the last person squatting in the open before the first Indian lands on the Moon.
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